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Using Genetics To Get More Efficient

Bob Weaber, Ph.D.
Cow/Calf Extension Specialist and Assistant Professor
Department of Animal Sciences and Industry
Kansas State University
Improvement of the economic position of the farm or ranch is an ongoing process for many commercial cow-calf producers. Profitability may be enhanced by increasing the volume of production (i.e. the pounds of calves you market) and/or the value of products you sell (improving quality). The reduction of production costs, and thus breakeven prices, can also improve profitability. For commercial beef producers, the implementation of technologies and breeding systems that increase the quality and volume of production and/or reduce input costs is essential to maintain or improve the competitive position of the operation. Profitability is influenced by these factors concurrently. Efficiency is the proportion of outputs to inputs and is frequently used by beef producers. There are many different ‘efficiencies’ that affect beef production, especially at the cow-calf level. Some of these efficiencies are observed at the individual animal level and some observed at the system or herd level. The various efficiencies can be categorized into with measures of biological or economic efficiency. Improvement in individual animal efficiency, especially during the post-weaning growing or finishing phases, may or may-not improve efficiency at the herd or system level, and may have undesirable correlated response in traits of cows.
So, why is improvement in feed efficiency important and why does the beef industry focus on it? During the growing and finishing phase of production, a 1% improvement in feed efficiency has the same economic impact as a 3% increase in rate of gain. The traits that beef producers routinely record are outputs which determine the value of product sold and not the inputs defining the cost of beef production. The inability to routinely measure feed intake and feed efficiency on large numbers of cattle has precluded the efficient application of selection despite moderate heritabilities (h2 = 0.08-0.46). Feed accounts for approximately 65% of total beef production costs and 60% of the total cost of calf and yearling finishing systems. The cow-calf segment consumes about 70% of the calories; 30% are used by growing and finishing systems. Of the calories consumed in the cow-calf segment, more than half are used for maintenance.
Table 1 shows the potential cost savings to the US beef cattle industry that could occur with selection for feed intake, feed efficiency, growth, and carcass traits. Calves and yearlings selected for residual feed intake (RFI) have the same ADG but eat less feed thus saving feedlot operators money. Assuming 27 million cattle are fed per year and that 34% of cattle in the feedlot are calves and 66% are yearlings, the beef industry could save over a billion dollars annually by reducing daily feed intake by just 2 lb. per animal.
Prepared for the Cornbelt Cow-Calf Conference, Ottumwa, IA January 21, 2012
Table 1. Estimated cost savings to the US beef cattle industry from selection for a 2 lb. reduction in residual feed intake.
In Wt.
Out Wt.
Lb. Gain
ADG
Days on Feed
RFI
Reduced Feed Intake
Feed Cost Savings
% of Fed Mix
Feed Cost Savings
Calf Feds
600
1,250
650
3.5
186
0.0
0
600
1,250
650
3.5
186
-2.0
-371
$ (54.72)
0.34
$ (502,620,656)
Yearling Feds
775
1,300
525
4.0
131
0.0
0
775
1,300
525
4.0
131
-2.0
-263
$ (38.67)
0.66
$ (689,539,820)
Total Savings:
$(1,192,160,476)
Annual fed slaughter: 27 million head; Delivered feed cost: $294.62 as fed
Weaber, 2011
Different Measures of Efficiency:
There are a variety of measures of efficiency discussed and utilized in beef production. Some may or may-not be important to cow-calf producers. For improvements in ‘efficiency’ to positively impact profitability of a cow-calf producer, the efficiency improvement must be realized prior to the marketing endpoint of progeny. While that may seem rather obvious, members of a production sector in the beef industry often get caught up in selection for outcomes for which they have no or limited opportunity to capture the value of the genetic gain. Often that selection pressure is at the cost of selection for traits that are economically relevant to the enterprise’s market endpoint. In the following sections a variety of ‘efficiency’ measures are discussed including their applicability and limitations for improvement in efficiency of the cow herd. These measures or their component traits have been shown to be heritable, so selection for improvement is possible but anticipated to be slow, requiring a decade or more to move the population a meaningful distance. A number of the measures, especially measures of biological or economic efficiency are also favorably impacted, typically, by the improvements in lowly heritable traits like longevity and fertility due to heterosis generated in structured crossbreeding systems. System efficiency improvements due to crossbreeding can be realized in 3-5 years depending on replacement rate in the herd.
Feed Efficiency or Feed Conversion Ratio: Many cow-calf producers and, certainly cattle feeders, are familiar with the term feed efficiency (FE) or its reciprocal, feed conversion ratio (FCR). Both of these measures are indicative of differences in the efficiency of feed utilization and are most commonly associated with animals during the growing or finishing phases. They represent a gross efficiency measure of the conversion of feed to gain. Both measures are suitable for managerial use during feeding but are poor selection tools. Their utility is limited in selection due to two issues. First, the measures are ratios of inputs and outputs, so improvement in the ratio can be achieved by changing the numerator, the denominator or both.
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Therefore breeders don’t have control over which parameter in the ratio changes due to selection. In practice the parameter improved in selection tends to be the one with the largest genetic variance. Selection tools like an index that consider each input and output separately are more effective. Second, FCR or FE is strongly related to average daily gain (ADG) and composition of gain. Leaner biological types and larger, faster growing animals tend to have better FE and FCR. Selection based on FE or FCR results in larger, later maturing and leaner cows. This type of cow tends to have higher maintenance energy requirements.
Residual Feed Intake: Recently, residual feed intake (RFI) has been reintroduced as an efficiency measure for beef production. RFI was first proposed by Koch et al. in 1963, so RFI is not a new idea. It is a residual computed by deviating actual average daily feed intake (AFI) from the predicted daily dry-matter intake. Predicted daily dry-matter intake is computed from a multiple regression model by regressing AFI on ADG and Body Weight (BW) scaled to the ¾ power (est. of metabolic weight). By regression, RFI is independent (i.e. zero correlation) from differences in ADG and BW. Recall the problems with FCR and FE centered around their undesirable association with other growth parameters. When RFI is computed on the phenotypic scale independence is assured for predictor variables. However, this doesn’t assure genetic independence. In fact research shows underlying genetic correlations between RFI with FI, ADG and BW as well as measures of composition. Computing RFI on the genetic scale as an index of EPDs assures a selection tool with fewer antagonisms. That said, RFI is not a perfect tool. The data used to compute it is quite expensive to gather as it requires individual feed intake monitoring systems. Additionally, RFI can and does identify efficient animals that also have slow growth and low feed intake making these candidates undesirable for selection and use in the commercial beef industry. So, RFI must be used with other measures like ADG to assure that industry acceptable animals are selected. Some research suggests that selection for RFI produces slightly larger and leaner cows over time and cows that have older ages at first calving. In general, selection for favorable (negative) RFI results in animals with equivalent performance, but achieves that output with less feed consumed.
Residual Average Daily Gain: A concept closely related to RFI is residual average daily gain (RADG) which was proposed at the same time as RFI as a potential tool for selection for improved feed efficiency. It is the residual from regression of ADG on AFI and BW raise to the ¾ power (metabolic body weight). Selection for RADG seeks to find animals that consumed equivalent AFI but resulted in better performance. RADG, like RFI, is a transformation of the data and can be computed on either the phenotypic or genetic scales. Differences in ADG are controlled for differences in AFI and BW. Like RFI it is typically computed on growing animals and is indicative of difference in efficiency of feed utilization for growth. It may have limited utility for prediction of differences in maintenance efficiency of cows. RADG should not be used alone in selection for feed efficiency. Data reveals that some animals with favorable RADG have sub-par feed intake and consequently undesirable ADG. Feed intake and growth, not surprisingly, have a strong positive genetic association. Input drives output. One additional
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challenge with RADG, and RFI for that matter, is that these measures are computed on growing animals. In the case of cows, growth is not desired endpoint, reproduction, maintenance and lactation are the principle energy sinks.
Average Daily Feed Intake: Also known as AFI. AFI is a gross measure of nutrient input. While it cannot be used alone as a predictor of feed efficiency, it provides a useful data input for computation of selection index. Feed intake represents an economically relevant measure of cost that can be associated with a variety of output or endpoint measures. AFI could be measured on animals during different phases of production and used to capture input:output (efficiency) information. A selection index for AFI or an AFI EPD can be reliably produced analyzing performance records for a variety of growth traits. An AFI EPD produced without actual feed records but based on genetic associations between growth and intake can account for nearly 75% of the variation in observed feed intake.
Weaning Weight per Cow Exposed: This is a gross measure of biological efficiency and relates the importance of reproductive success, longevity, calf survival and other factors on system output. Improvements in maintenance efficiency of cows (or a reduction in maintenance or production requirement under stressful environments) would likely improve this efficiency metric. Clearly, both production potential (growth and lactation) and heterosis from crossbreeding can substantially affect this measure.
Weaning Weight per Cow Exposed per Unit of Energy Consumed: Another measure of biological efficiency that includes accounting of nutrients consumed for both production and maintenance of cow and calf. This metric should point to best combination of genetic merit for economically relevant traits to a weaning market endpoint including calving ease, growth, lactation, and mature cow weight among other. Researchers (Ferrell and Jenkins, 1994) have conducted a number of studies to evaluate different sire breeds for biological efficiency under low, average and high nutrient availability. In this experiment, the found little difference in efficiency across biological type (growth, lactation and leanness) at moderate nutrient availability. Under low nutrient availability, smaller breeds with lower lactation potential were more efficient. At high nutrient availability, large, high milk breeds were more efficient. The primary difference was the impact of nutrient availability on fertility for a given biological type.
Value ($) Output per $100 of total input: This is a measure of economic efficiency and the results are highly dependent upon selection of appropriate endpoint. Nielsen and colleagues (1993) demonstrated the differences in economic efficiency for three different levels of milk production from cows of three different breed crosses but of similar body size. The weaning endpoint favored the low and medium lactation groups over the high milk group. If progeny were sold as finished calves the group ranks were the same, but the range between them widened. Kress and others (1988) demonstrated the importance of longevity to both biological and economic efficiency.
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Selecting to Improve Efficiency:
Role of Growth and Lactation Potential on ME efficiency and ME requirements: Mature cow weight and lactation potential play a key role in determining annual nutrient requirements for cows. Increasing average cow mature weights from 1,000 lb to 1,400 lb, approximately the change we’ve observed over the last 30 years, increases nutrient requirements by 27%. Increasing lactation potential from 10 lb. to 30 lb. per day at peak results in a 16% increase in nutrient requirements. These increases in potential have the opportunity to be associated with increases in output, but they also have the potential to undermine a cows fitness in a given production environment. Increases in mature weight and lactation drive up maintenance requirements. Optimization of growth and lactation genetics, and ultimately profitability, requires understanding the marginal revenues and marginal costs associated with these attributes.
The associated change in maintenance requirement due to mature weight change is distinctly different from the change increased weight has on maintenance energy or metabolic efficiency. Metabolic rate does not scale linearly with mass or weight. Instead, it increases exponentially by the ¾ power. Thus, warm blooded animals with larger mass are more metabolically efficient than ones of small mass. The principle reason for these phenomena is relationship between surface area of the animal and it’s mass. Large animals have less surface area per unit mass enabling them to conserve heat more effectively. So, large cows are more efficient users of maintenance energy but have higher requirements.
The key then is finding cows with appropriate levels of mature weight and lactation potential (or biological type) for your production environment. Note that managerial (i.e. reducing supplemental feedstuffs) or environmental (i.e. drought) changes that alter nutrient availability may substantially change the fitness of your existing cows. Care should be taken in sire selection for production of replacement females such that their growth, mature weight and lactation potential are appropriate.
Current tools: At present several selection tools are available for selection to improve feed efficiency in beef cattle. These include the RADG EPD published by the American Angus Association. The EPD leverages a variety of molecular and phenotypic data to produce a genetic prediction describing differences in expected post-weaning gain given some level of intake. More positive values are indicative of higher levels of efficiency. A number of other breeds, including Simmental, Gelbvieh, Hereford and Limousin have active breeding programs and data collection efforts to gather individual feed intake records with goals of producing genetic predictors for efficiency of gain. A large USDA funded integrated research and extension project is focused on the genetic improvement of feed efficiency in beef cattle and will leverage a variety of methods to achieve this goal.
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The American Angus Association and the Red Angus Association of America both produce selection indexes that describe differences in maintenance energy requirements. These tools rely on the genetic associations between maintenance energy required with mature size and milk genetic predictors. As before, animals with higher potentials for these traits generally have higher maintenance energy requirements.
Unfortunately, little work has been done to address the additive genetic improvement of maintenance efficiency in beef cattle. Researchers know differences exist across breeds and individuals but accumulation of a substantial number of records has been elusive. Clearly this parameter would benefit from the development of genomic selection tools to enable genetic improvement.
Value of Heterosis in Improving Biological Efficiency: One of the only, yet very effective ways, to improve biological efficiency of beef cattle production systems is through the use of planned crossbreeding systems to leverage heterosis, especially maternal heterosis, and breed complementarity.
Heterosis refers to the superiority of the crossbred animal relative to the average of its straight bred parents. Heterosis results from the increase in the heterozygosity of a crossbred animal’s genetic makeup. Heterozygosity refers to a state where an animal has two different forms of a gene. It is believed that heterosis is the result of gene dominance and the recovery from accumulated inbreeding depression of pure breeds. Heterosis is, therefore, dependent on an animal having two different copies of a gene. The level of heterozygosity an animal has depends on the random inheritance of copies of genes from its parents. In general, animals which are crosses of unrelated breeds, such as Angus and Brahman, exhibit higher levels of heterosis, due to more heterozygosity, than do crosses of more genetically similar breeds such as a cross of Angus and Hereford.
Heterosis generates the largest improvement in lowly heritable traits. Moderate improvements due to heterosis are seen in moderately heritable traits. Little or no heterosis is observed in highly heritable traits. Heritability is the proportion of the observable variation in a trait between animals that is due to the genetics that are passed between generations and the variation observed in the animal’s phenotypes, which are the result of genetic and environmental effects. Traits such as reproduction and longevity have low heritability. These traits respond very slowly to selection since a large portion of the variation observed in them is due to environmental factors and a small percentage is due to genetic differences. Heterosis generated through crossbreeding can significantly improve an animal’s performance for lowly heritable traits. Crossbreeding has been shown to be an efficient method to improve reproductive efficiency and productivity in beef cattle.
Improvements in cow-calf production due to heterosis are attributable to having both a crossbred cow and a crossbred calf. The two tables below detail the individual (crossbred calf) 6
and maternal (crossbred cow) heterosis observed for various important production traits. These heterosis estimates are adapted from a report by Cundiff and Gregory, 1999, and summarize crossbreeding experiments conducted in the South-eastern and Mid-west areas of the US.
The heterosis generated in calves that are the progeny of straight bred parents of different breeds or crossbred parents is called individual heterosis. While this type of heterosis has import effects on economically important traits, it only accounts for approximately one-third of the total economic benefits of having crossbred cows and calves. Thus if you only have crossbred calves (i.e. straight bred cows) you’re missing the biggest share of economic benefit from crossbreeding. Individual heterosis improves performance in a number of traits measured on calves including survival and growth (Table 2.). For example, individual heterosis can improve weaning weights by nearly 4% which on a 500 lb. weaned calf is 20 lbs.
Table 2. Effects of individual heterosis on performance of crossbred calves
Trait Units % Heterosis
Calving Rate, % 3.2 4.4
Survival to Weaning, % 1.4 1.9
Birth Weight, lb. 1.7 2.4
Weaning Weight, lb. 16.3 3.9
Yearling Weight, lb. 29.1 3.8
Average Daily Gain, lb./d 0.08 2.6
Why is it so important to have crossbred cows?
The production of crossbred calves yields advantages in both heterosis and the blending of desirable traits from two or more breeds. However, the largest economic benefit of crossbreeding to commercial producers comes from having crossbred cows. Maternal heterosis improves both the environment a cow provides for her calf as well as improves the longevity and durability of the cow. The improvement of the maternal environment a cow provides for her calf is manifested in the improvements in calf survivability to weaning and increased weaning weight. Crossbred cows exhibit improvements in calving rate of nearly 4% and an increase in longevity of more than one year due to heterotic effects (Table 3). Heterosis results in increases in lifetime productivity of approximately one calf and 600 pounds of calf weaning weight over the lifetime of the cow (Table 2). Crossbreeding can have positive effects on a ranch’s bottom line by not only increasing the quality and gross pay weight of calves produced but also by increasing the durability and productivity of the cow factory. Crossbred cows maybe the only free lunch in the world.
The effects of maternal heterosis on the economic measures of cow-calf production have been shown to be very positive. The added value of maternal heterosis ranges from approximately $50/cow/year to nearly $100/cow/year depending on the amount of maternal
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heterosis retained in the cowherd (Ritchie, 1998). Maternal heterosis accounted for an increase in net profit per cow of nearly $75/cow/year (Davis et al., 1994). Their results suggested that the benefits of maternal heterosis on profit were primarily the reduced cost per cow exposed. Crossbred cows had higher reproductive rates, longer productive lives, and required fewer replacements than straight bred cows in their study. All of these factors contribute to reduced cost per cow exposed. Further, they found increased outputs, including growth and milk yield, were offset by increased costs.
Table 3. Effects of maternal heterosis on calf traits affected by maternal environment, cow productivity and longevity.
Trait Units % Heterosis
Calving Rate, % 3.5 3.7
Survival to Weaning, % 0.8 1.5
Birth Weight, lb. 1.6 1.8
Weaning Weight, lb. 18.0 3.9
Longevity, years 1.36 16.2
Lifetime Productivity
Number of Calves 0.97 17.0
Cumulative Weaning Wt., lb. 600 25.3
How can I harness the power of breed complementarity?
Breed complementarity is the effect of combining breeds that have different strengths. When considering crossbreeding from the standpoint of producing replacement females, one could select breeds that have complementary maternal traits such that females are most ideally matched to their production environment. Matings to produce calves for market should focus on complementing the traits of the cows and fine tuning calf performance (growth and carcass traits) to the market place.
There is an abundance of research that describes the core competencies (biological type) of many of today’s commonly used beef breeds. Traits are typically combined into groupings such as maternal/reproduction, growth and carcass. When selecting animals for a crossbreeding system, their breed should be your first consideration. What breeds you select for inclusion in your mating program will be dependent on a number of factors including the current breed composition of your cow herd, your forage and production environment, your replacement female development system, and your calf marketing endpoint. All of these factors help determine the relative importance of traits for each production phase.
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What are the keys to successful crossbreeding programs?
Many of the challenges that have been associated with crossbreeding systems in the past are the result of undisciplined implementation of the system. With that in mind, one should be cautious to select a mating system that matches the amount of labor and expertise available to appropriately implement the system. Crossbreeding systems range in complexity from very simple programs such as the use of hybrid genetics, which are as easy to use as straight breeding, to elaborate rotational crossbreeding systems with four or more breed inputs. The biggest keys to success are the thoughtful construction of a plan and the sticking to it! Be sure to set attainable goals. Discipline is essential.
Modify Cows or Modify Environment?
Historically, supplemental feedstuffs have been relatively inexpensive compared to current costs. In fact, much of the early motivation to develop farmer owned confinement feeding systems, common in the Midwest, was to add value to coarse grains by feeding it to cattle. Present costs for supplemental feedstuffs, fertilizer and fuel inputs have many producers reconsidering their production model and moving towards systems with reduced inputs. Indeed producers are evaluating modification of the cow rather than modification of the production environment.
It seems that in the short run, the most effective way to improve efficiency at the production or herd level is through selection for cows of the appropriate biological type that fit their production environment. Further, these cows should likely be crossbred cows to leverage the benefits of maternal heterosis and breed complementarity. In the intermediate to long run, seedstock and ultimately commercial producers should select for animals, via selection index, that optimize efficiency to the enterprise’s market endpoints. Such a two pronged approach leverages efficiency gains due to additive and non-additive genetics that affect animal efficiency of feed utilization as well as biological efficiency, respectively.

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Good Habits Of Profitable Ranches

By Ellen H. Brisendine

Stan Bevers analyzes a lot of data. As a teacher of, and advocate for, Standardized Performance Analysis (SPA), the professor, Extension economist and management specialist for the Texas AgriLife Extension Service, sees the results of habits that are common to beef producers who generate more profit from their cow-calf operations.
1. A calf
"This sounds so simple," he says, but profitable producers focus on reproduction and not production. If a cow doesn't get bred nothing else matters," Bevers says.
"That is why we're in the cow-calf business." Without a calf from every cow every year, "everything that follows is an expense without any revenue to offset it. We get so focused on production methods, but I have to have a calf to implant or feed for better gains. I have to have a calf first."
When the time comes for drought-stricken Texas and Oklahoma producers to rebuild their herds, Bevers suggests paying attention to the basics of cattle production and selection.
Look for bulls that can travel, are structurally correct and have the scrotal circumference to indicate a high libido. Breed associations generally have the average information for scrotal circumference and can advise producers on that trait.
"That bull can have the greatest EPDs (expected progeny differences) for weaning, yearling and carcass traits, but if he's not a breeder, I don't need him."
2. A smaller cow
Speaking from the perspective of a cow-calf operator, Bevers proposes "now that I've destocked — some or all — this is good time to change the size of my cows. If I can reduce my cow size by 20 percent from 1,200- or 1,300-pound cows to 1,000-pound cows, I can then run that many more cows.
"It comes back to reproduction. I have more chances of getting calves on the ground. Instead of having a single 1,300-pound cow, I have a couple of 1,000-pound cows, and that many more chances to get calves."
Bevers agrees that it can be hard for producers to pick something other than what has always appealed to them, as far as female type. If a producer wants to rebuild with a more moderate-framed cow herd, he or she will have to make a conscious decision to look for something different in their new female type.
"What do we do when we get our replacement heifers? We pick the biggest ones and that tells us our mature cow size will increase if we continue to do that," he says.
3. More instead of bigger
With a herd of smaller cows, producers might get smaller calves. Is that bad? "As a cow-calf operator, they don't necessarily need the biggest calves with the heaviest weaning weights. I suggest they consider this perspective, ‘I have the greatest number of calves on the ground to start with.'
"We need to be producing good calves, but the first step is to produce a calf," he says, repeating his earlier point that reproduction of a calf ranks higher than production. Don't allow the striving toward a lofty quality production goal get in the way of your cows reproducing themselves each year.
4. Maintain the natural resource
Another habit of profit-minded ranchers is to maintain the environment in which they ranch. "I hear the statement all the time that we're grass farmers. And we are."
Bevers reminds producers of the fundamental wisdom of fitting your cattle to your environment. It is futile and expensive to try to alter the landscape to support an unsustainable type of beef animal. Know what your land will support and stock conservatively according to that information.
5. Face the numbers
"One of the first things SPA points out is the inadequacy of the information that ranchers think they are keeping." Bevers says useful agricultural accounting is a specialized area that requires an understanding of cash record keeping and allocating costs appropriately to the enterprise.
"If I'm truly a business-minded rancher, I need better information. From an IRS standpoint, raised replacement heifers have a zero tax basis. It doesn't matter whether she's purchased or raised, that female gets older every year of her life and she depreciates over her life. We try to help ranchers identify what their costs of replacement heifers are and what other costs are," Bevers says.
Bevers explains that cow-calf producers are asset managers rather than margin operators. "Margin businesses — stocker operators, feedlot operators, packers — buy the product, transform it in some way and sell it. The difference between a buy and a sell is the margin.
"Cow-calf producers are in the asset management business. We have this culmination of all our assets. The most important thing cow-calf producers can look at is their rate of return on those assets."
Bevers continues, "Drilling into that, what is your cost structure? About 45 to 50 percent of the total costs to run females are fixed costs," such as labor, taxes, depreciation of assets, interest on borrowed money for mortgage or cattle purchases. These costs exist whether a rancher has a 90 percent calf crop, or no calves.
Regardless of the profitability of a cow-calf operation, the 3 top expenses are always, "labor and management, depreciation and feed," Bevers says.
6. All expenses are subject to scrutiny
Bevers notices that the more highly profitable ranches are those that scrutinize every expense to see how it will help that operation get another calf.
"If I have the right labor out there and I'm saving one calf, then, yes, that is an important and cost-effective dollar spent.
"Feed. We traditionally think that's going to help the nutrition of the cows. But at these feed costs, we really have to scrutinize that expense. Make the cows go out there and take care of themselves in the environment."
If scrutiny of expenses saves ranchers from spending dollars on practices or equipment that won't help get a calf, then those dollars can be spent on useful practices, such as veterinary support. "Get that vet out there to help or treat a condition. Spend the dollar that will assure you a live calf." 

http://www.thecattlemanmagazine.com/archives/2012/march/Good%20Habits.html

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South Africa: Post harvest benefits of removing ethylene from cold storage environment of avocados

by Dr Malcolm Dodd of Cold Storage Solutions & Samadis

 
Avocados are a highly perishable product that require careful handling throughout the post harvest supply-chain to ensure maximum value is extracted at the point of sale. This involves precise management through the post harvest handling and cold supply chain to ensure a high value. Being classified as “Climacteric” fruit, they are very sensitive to the presence of ethylene in the storage environment, and should be managed accordingly. There is much evidence in the scientific literature as to the large amount of ethylene that avocados produce during ripening and how sensitive they are to the presence of this ripening hormone in the storage environment. This means that careful handling and attention to detail will ensure that quality maximum value is achieved at the point of sale.



The avocado fruit does not ripen whilst still hanging on the tree so there is a picking window for the fruit. The correct maturity can be established by determining the moisture content of the fruit and picking according to the guidelines set out in the SAAGA Picking and Packing guidelines. Fruit maturity plays a very important role in determining fruit quality. Immature product leads to uneven ripening of fruit which makes it unacceptable from a consumer’s point of view. Fruit maturity also plays an important role in the sensitivity of fruit for low storage temperatures during shipping to overseas markets. Correct moisture determination is also extremely important for the determination of the correct temperature management system.

The main technology available to manage this high perishability is refrigeration and its application in the cold chain. The challenge with Avocado is the fact that chilling damage to the fruit tissues occurs at a relatively high (<8˚C) temperatures which do not slow down the respiration rate as much as lower temperatures would. Lower temperatures slow down the respiration rate of the fruit and thus help delay the onset of the climacteric ripening process. This is characterised by a preceding surge in the natural production of ethylene. Once this gas is introduced into the storage environment it stimulates the spontaneous ripening in fruit that have not reached the climacteric rise in respiration rate. This then creates the production of additional amounts of ethylene by other fruits. Thus an auto-catalytic spiral is started and unless this is controlled, the fruit will all be over-ripe by the time they reach the market. Therefore it is very important that the product is pre-cooled to the correct set point (2-4˚C for ripe fruit or 5-13˚C for green fruit) as soon as possible after harvest.

Additionally the relative humidity of the storage air throughout the cold chain should be maintained between 90 and 95%. Once the fruit has been cooled to the desired set point they should be kept at that temperature and relative humidity for the remainder of their post harvest life up until the point of sale.

Any unseen injury to the fruit and below the surface fungal infection will spontaneously cause the production of ethylene. As explained, this ethylene accelerates the ripening within that particular fruit as well as additionally stimulating the ripening in fruits that had not yet reached that stage of physiological maturity. It makes sense then to try and reduce the production of further ethylene. The best way to achieve this, over and above managing the temperatures and disease control, is to manage the ethylene levels around the fruit. This can be achieved by an organic chemical process called “scrubbing”. This process occurs spontaneously when air containing ethylene is passed over specialised clay particles that adsorb the ethylene onto them leaving an organically disposable residue. Thus the ethylene is removed from the storage air and is unable to stimulate the production of additional ethylene from pre-climacteric fruit by pushing them into the climacteric phase of respiration and thus ripening. Making use of ethylene scrubbers in the cold stores and shipping containers used to store and transport avocados will remove any ethylene that is in the storage air and the negative impact that this has on fruit quality. In addition the scrubbers will remove from the air the volatile gaseous acetylaldehydes that give the trigger signal to the growth of fungal spores that are circulating in the storage air. Hence fungal growth is limited.

The benefits of managing and controlling ethylene to maintain avocado quality is evidenced by the success that has been achieved with the ethylene blocker chemical 1 MCP. Fruit firmness is maintained and disorders reduced with the use of this product. However, one of the down sides to the use of an ethylene blocker is that it is often times too effective, causing the fruit to remain “sleepy” and not ripen up properly or causes it  to ripen unevenly. This is not the case when simple ethylene scrubbing techniques are used because once the fruit is removed from an ethylene scrubbed/cleaned environment the natural ripening processes recommence spontaneously.

The prime initial benefit of this natural ethylene scrubbing as a process is that the ripening rate of the fruit is slowed down and the likelihood of fungal infection removed. The result will be avocado in the market place that look great, is uniformly ripe and tastes good.

Ethylene scrubbing is a relatively low cost and economic process that is organic and safe. A small investment in ethylene scrubbing technology in the cold store and also in shipping containers will have a high return on investment as the fruit will all be marketable at the highest value possible.

It is of interest to note that South Africa’s export rivals from South America are very active in the use of natural ethylene scrubbing especially in the avocado, mango and plum industries. The main shipping lines out of Latin America using CA containers to export avocado fit Bioconservacion ethylene scrubbing filters as standard practice .

For more information:
Dax Rowlands
Samapro Trading
Samadis (Pty) Ltd
Tel: 0027 82 794 5772
Email: dax@samadis.co.za

http://www.freshplaza.com/news_detail.asp?id=93749

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New Equine Fetal Sex Determination Technique Studied

Researchers at the Federal University of Pelotas, Brazil, recently completed a study identifying circulating cell-free fetal DNA (ccffDNA) to determine fetal gender in pregnant mares. While ccffDNA has already been explored in humans, this is the first study to successfully demonstrate its presence ccffDNA–and thus aid in sex determination–in horses.
Generally, veterinarians determine fetal sex-typing via transrectal or transabdominal ultrasound of the mare. In the current study, researchers isolated ccffDNA in the blood plasma of 20 Thoroughbred mares in their final three months of pregnancy.
The current study was conducted in two steps:

• Step 1 involved a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay to detect ccffDNA in the plasma of pregnant mares. PCR determines sex at the molecular level by detecting the presence or absence of Y chromosome. The expressed sex-determining SRY gene suggests a male, while the absence of SRY indicates female gender.
• Step 2 sought to validate results of the first PCR product through reamplification, producing 2nd-PCR and quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) results.

The first stage PCR/SRY analysis produced an overall accuracy of 85%, with the second stage of analysis after reamplification achieving 95% accuracy. Researchers then confirmed the test results after foaling.
While this relatively noninvasive procedure proved successful in determining a foal’s gender in this study, the technique also opens the door for future prenatal detection of genetic diseases. The research team hopes to increase the test’s sensitivity for use in early pregnancy.

Learn more about raising horses and mare care in the handy reference Understanding the Broodmare.

“We are working on a project to identify the minimum time to determine fetal DNA in the blood of mares,” explained researcher Tiago Collares, PhD, DVM. “In this sense, we could intervene in high-risk or genetically undesirable pregnancies.
“Our study was simple and innovative,” he continued. “Several studies in humans are new frontiers for studies in animals, especially horses.”
This study, “Equine fetal sex determination using circulating cell-free fetal DNA (ccffDNA),” was published in the February 2012 issue of Theriogenology. The abstract is available on Pubmed.

http://cattlemarketnews.com/2012/03/new-equine-fetal-sex-determination-technique-studied/

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NOTA DE VIERNES: Comercial de Salma Hayek BURGER KING (Video)

Salma Hayek plays a diverse cast of BK® customers, ordering Garden Fresh Salads, Crispy Chicken Snack Wraps and Crispy Chicken Strips, while showing off her acting chops in English and Spanish language ads.

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VIDEO: Revista Produz

Vídeo institucional desenvolvido para divulgação da Revista Produz:

Uma veiculação mensal do segmento do agronegócio com circulação em todo o Brasil, que apresenta editorias como inovação tecnológica, meio ambiente, saúde animal, assessoria jurídica, políticas públicas, pecuária e agricultura... Enfim, tudo o que o leitor precisa saber para ficar bem informado e produzir mais.

www.revistaproduz.com.br
assinatura@revistaproduz.com.br
publicidade@revistaproduz.com.br

Créditos do vídeo: Marcéli Faleiro e Pedro Henrique Caixeta.

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Watch as treated seeds are mixed and aerated inside a Bayer KSi RH-2000 treater drum. This is one of the last steps of seed treatment in a bulk seed treatment system. Get more information at www.ksiconveyors.com or by contacting KSi at sales@ksiconveyors.com or Call IL : (888) 574-2668 or KS : (888) 574-3277.

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¿De qué manera se analizan los pastos de su finca en el laboratorio?

Autor: David Mora Valverde Estación Experimental Alfredo Volio Mata Universidad de Costa Rica

Una breve guía, paso a paso, que le permitirá comprender de manera general los análisis de calidad realizados al recurso forrajero de las fincas.

Posiblemente usted como productor ganadero se ha preguntado cómo se desarrollan las diferentes pruebas bromatológicas a los pastos de su finca y de cómo estas pueden reflejar una situación determinada que permitirán tomar decisiones que vayan en beneficio de la alimentación de sus animales. El objetivo del presente artículo es aclararle y explicarle de manera sencilla cada uno de los pasos a los cuales se somete una muestra de pastos de su finca para extraerle la información que sirva de herramienta vital en las buenas prácticas en nutrición animal para que con ello usted pueda comprender de mejor manera las sugerencias de su zootecnista de confianza.

El componente forrajero.

Como es natural, cada finca pecuaria se encuentra sometida a condiciones muy diferentes dentro de las cuales interactúan variables que no permiten generalizar el desempeño de una pastura simplemente por su especie. Entre ellas, se encuentran las condiciones del suelo donde ésta se desarrolla y del régimen de fertilización de la pastura. Asimismo, es vital el reconocimiento del tipo de explotación a la cual hace ha sometido la pastura directamente por parte de los animales (rotación) ó por acarreo y de su impacto sobre el desempeño nutricional de un forraje, sin olvidar las condiciones de altitud, el régimen de lluvias y los periodos de cosecha de los cortes. Es por ello que no es preciso tomar una decisión agronómica (fertilización del pasto ó manejo físico del suelo) ó nutricional (diseño de dietas) a partir de información genérica importada de otras fincas ó unidades productivas que no necesariamente reflejan la calidad del alimento que estamos produciendo y brindando a nuestros animales. Por ello surge el análisis bromatológico de pasturas, una herramienta básica para el diseño de dietas que utiliza el profesional en nutrición animal.   

¿Por qué se conoce como análisis bromatológico?

Al tratar a las pasturas como un cultivo con requerimientos tan exigentes como cualquier otro producto vegetal, se comprende que es necesario el manejo técnico y profesional de las mismas. En este campo, la bromatología se conoce como la ciencia que estudia a los alimentos en cuanto a su producción, manipulación, conservación, elaboración y distribución, así como su relación con la sanidad. Ésta comprende la medición de las cantidades a suministrar a los individuos de acuerdo con los regímenes alimenticios específicos de cada tipo de animal.  Con los forrajes, llevamos nuestro pasto al laboratorio para que a este se le separe en diferentes porciones y que cada porción nos indique cuanto obtenemos de cada componente de interés, llámese energía, proteína, fibras, etc.  

La célula vegetal del pasto

Para una mejor comprensión previo a explicar cada una de las pruebas de laboratorio que se efectúan al pasto, es necesario conocer que éste en su estructura básica, se encuentra formado por células vegetales que a su vez están compuestas por los alimentos que nos interesan, los cuales se encuentran almacenados para el aprovechamiento de la planta. Cada una de estas células tiene una pared celular que es el esqueleto de la célula y el sostén de la planta cuya función es la de proteger los tejidos y contenidos de la misma. Esta protección impide el máximo aprovechamiento de los contenidos de la pared celular por parte de los animales y representa  un mecanismo de selección natural de la planta para sobrevivir a las variaciones de temperaturas, el cual se acentúa en el caso de las pasturas tropicales debido a que su pared celular se encuentra aún más protegida en gran parte por el compuesto conocido como lignina, que aporta impermeabilidad a la planta. 

Distribución de los componentes del pasto dentro de la célula vegetal

La morfología básica de las paredes celulares del pasto, así como del resto de plantas  está determinada por la celulosa, la cual está formada por carbohidratos fuertemente unidos a los cuales, en el proceso de digestión animal, solamente tienen acceso las enzimas producidas por los microorganismos del rumen, quienes se alimentan de ella, permitiéndoles su rápida reproducción y crecimiento hasta representar un volumen importante y significativo de flora bacteriana conocida como la proteína microbiana, la cual es un aporte vital dentro de la dieta de los rumiantes.

Estructuralmente, la célula posee dos paredes celulares; la primaria y la secundaria. La pared primaria está compuesta de fibrillas de celulosa, hemicelulosa y proteína con grandes cantidades de pectina que forman un armazón viscoso que consolida toda la pared. Todos estos componentes son responsables de la arquitectura de la planta y de la resistencia a los patógenos y enfermedades. A su vez, esta pared  primaria está rodeada de una matriz compuesta igualmente de hemicelulosa, proteína y pectina.

Las hemicelulosas son mezclas de carbohidratos digeribles (glucosas, manosas y galactosas, xilosas y arabinosas, entre otras) de diferentes polisacáridos (azúcares unidos repetidamente) y éstos se encuentran adheridos a la superficie de las microfibrillas de la celulosa. Por ser la hemicelulosa tan variada en sus tipos de carbohidratos y por sus características químicas, éstos son fácilmente solubles en agua y mucho más sensibles a la acción química que la celulosa, por lo tanto más digeribles.

La lignina en la célula es heterogénea, amorfa y altamente ramificada y esta rodea las microfibrillas de la celulosa y de la hemicelulosa y es muy poco sensible al agua. La distribución de la lignina en la célula varía según el tipo de especie de pasto, la cual determina el tipo de lignina formada. Este compuesto es completamente indigerible y el conocer su cantidad en el pasto permite predecir la digestibilidad en materia seca y energía de un alimento debido a que, por encontrarse rodeando los carbohidratos mencionados anteriormente (hemicelulosa y celulosa), dificulta el acceso a los que sí son digeribles. 

A la celulosa y la hemicelulosa les corresponden los mayores porcentajes en la constitución de la fibra, seguidas de la lignina y las pectinas. Debido a esta composición tan compleja, es que se hace necesario contar con ensayos relativamente rápidos y confiables para determinar el contenido total de la fibra insoluble en los alimentos para animales.

 

Figura 1. La célula vegetal en los pastos y el fraccionamiento de sus paredes. Cartago, 2010. Modificado de: Segura et al (2007) Diagramación: David Mora V.

Procedimientos para el análisis de pasturas

Habiendo aclarado brevemente la composición interna del pasto, se comprende de mejor manera la importancia de cumplir ciertos niveles básicos desde el muestreo en campo hasta el laboratorio para llegar a los valores que necesitamos conocer de nuestras pasturas. Cada tipo de análisis químico a efectuar tiene como objetivo separar o aislar del ordenamiento natural de las plantas a sus fases fibrosas o nutricionales según el potencial químico que tenga cada reactivo de efectuarlo. Posterior a esto y con diferentes metodologías, se procede a cuantificar la cantidad del compuesto de interés y de manera porcentual, en relación a la totalidad del material analizado. Lo anterior al fin y al cabo expresa la calidad nutricional que posee la planta.

El muestreo.

La técnica de muestreo como parte inicial de un estudio integral de forrajes debe hacerse respetando los criterios de uniformidad y representatividad. En otras palabras, implica que el material que se lleve al laboratorio deberá ser una "fotografía" a muy pequeña escala del área que representa. Con esto, la precisión de datos permitirá explicar de manera técnica las verdaderas características y necesidades de cada cultivo.

Existen diversas formas de muestreo de potreros dentro de las cuales pueden encontrarse algunas especializadas para las pasturas de piso como lo es el Botanal®, el cual es un método mixto que utiliza tanto técnicas de muestreo como de apreciación visual en la evaluación de la composición botánica y la producción de biomasa de las pasturas. Para cualquier muestreo juegan ciertos detalles a tomar en cuenta tal y como son el comportamiento alimenticio del animal sobre las pasturas; por ejemplo, en el caso de animales de pastoreo, se debe tomar muestras que asemejen la forma en que los animales comen en el campo. Otro ejemplo al respecto, sería si se quiere determinar la calidad del forraje que se destina a ensilaje de planta entera, silopacas o pacas para lo cual se debe muestrear cortando el material a la altura que cortaría la máquina para obtener mejores muestras. Independientemente de la técnica usada, el objetivo del muestreo es obtener correctamente el material para ser enviado al laboratorio.

Identificación de muestras

Una vez que las muestras son colectadas en campo y llevadas al laboratorio de análisis de forrajes, se identifican con un código determinado que permitirá darle el seguimiento oportuno. Una vez concluido este paso la muestra lleva un proceso de secado y homogeneización para convertirla en la materia prima de todos los ensayos en el laboratorio.

Determinación de la Materia Seca a 60 y 105 grados centígrados.

Cada muestra llevada debe pasar por un tratamiento en el cual el pasto es convertido en harina donde, posterior a su pesaje en fresco, se coloca en un horno a una temperatura de 60 grados centígrados durante 48 horas. Es aquí donde el agua se evapora y el alimento seco restante se denomina materia seca a 60 grados centígrados. En este proceso, se llevó el forraje hasta una temperatura en la cual, si se hubiese mantenido por más tiempo dentro del horno, no hubiese perdido mayor cantidad de agua (ver figura 1). Lo anterior implica que, posterior a las 48 horas, por más que se mantenga el forraje dentro del horno, sin que varíe la temperatura, el contenido de agua no cambiará significativamente en el tiempo. El material es pesado una vez que esté seco lo cual permite determinar el porcentaje de materia seca con que se trabaja. El mismo procedimiento es repetido pero para una temperatura mayor, la cual provee el dato porcentual de materia seca a 105 grados centígrados.

 Molienda y rotulación

Cabe aclarar que hasta este proceso el material a analizar en general no ha cambiado sus cualidades nutricionales básicas y que su diferencia en relación al material fresco consiste únicamente en el cambio del contenido de agua y por supuesto, su apariencia física. En otras palabras, lo que se tiene es un "heno" muy seco, el cual debe ahora pasar por el proceso de ruptura de su estructura primaria (su forma de hoja y tallo) para ser literalmente molido con un equipo especializado que puede dar diferentes tamaños de partícula de harina, según el tipo de criba que se utilice y el análisis que se requiera. Este material molido representa la materia prima base para el trabajo del analista de laboratorio y es colocado posteriormente en recipientes de vidrio rotulados, en los cuales se conservarán por el tiempo necesario, cuidando que no entre en contacto con humedad que la dañe.

Tipos de análisis realizados al pasto

Cada unos de los componentes determinantes de la calidad de un forraje (proteína, tipos de fibras, carbohidratos, agua, cenizas etc.) que se utilizan como información básica para el diseño de una dieta, tienen características particulares que permiten identificarlas a través de métodos de laboratorio, por lo que se explican cada uno de estos de manera que puedan conocerse sus principios y comprender la importancia del cuidado que requiere una muestra dentro del periodo de análisis. A modo de ejemplo se explicará el procedimiento completo para el tratamiento de una muestra de pasto estrella (Cynodom nlemfluensis), proveniente de la zona de Cartago (Ochomogo) a la cual se le aplicará la técnica de análisis de fibra establecida por Goering y Van Soest (1980), así como también otros aspectos metodológicos básicos para determinar las cantidades de proteína, grasas y aceites que igualmente representan fracciones importantes del pasto.

Figura 2. El manejo de muestras de pasto previo a la aplicación de pruebas bromatológicas. Cartago, 2010. Diseño: David Mora

Ahora bien, la muestra está en su condición de materia seca (MS) a la espera de ser procesada y de obtener su información nutricional. A su vez, el material en estas condiciones está compuesto de una porción susceptible de quemarse porque está constituido por materiales que contienen carbón (substancias orgánicas) así como por sustancias que no se pueden quemar y que se mantienen como un residuo en forma de ceniza cuando se quema hasta la calcinación una muestra de materia seca. Este último procedimiento se realiza a 550 grados centígrados durante 24 horas y se conoce como Determinación de Cenizas.

Una vez lista la muestra de pasto estrella para su uso por los equipos del laboratorio, se procede a efectuar la determinación del perfil de fibras.  Dada la complejidad de la distribución de los componentes de la fibra de los pastos, de sus paredes así como de su composición química, cabe mencionar de previo que no existe ningún método completo o combinación de métodos que ofrezcan un análisis cuantitativo completo de todos los componentes de esta fracción fibrosa, mas bien ofrecen una estimación bromatológica que a nivel general permiten evaluar la fibra del pasto de manera práctica para la toma de decisiones en la práctica nutricional.

Figura 2. El manejo de muestras de pasto previo a la aplicación de pruebas bromatológicas. Cartago, 2010. Diseño: David Mora

El perfil de Fibras

Neutro Detergente, Ácido Detergente y Lignina

Fibra Neutro Detergente (FND)

Para esta determinación, se toman pequeñas muestras (0.5 gramos) de la molienda del pasto, se coloca en una bolsa pequeña especial para estos procedimientos y se somete a la solución conocida como Solución Detergente Neutro (SDN) (Figura 3). Esta consta de una preparación previa de 5 reactivos a determinada concentración y con una acidez neutra. Esta solución es más débil en relación a la solución de la Fibra Ácido Detergente (FAD) y extrae en general los contenidos celulares de más fácil acceso en el pasto, dejando un remanente el cual se nombra como la Fibra Detergente Neutro, la cual está compuesta por hemicelulosa, celulosa y lignina. El proceso se realiza en máquinas diseñadas para tal fin las cuales mantienen el proceso en condiciones controladas aproximadamente durante una hora en la cual rompen, disuelven y extraen los diferentes tipos de azúcares dentro de la fracción fibrosa más débilmente adherida de la fibra del pasto.

Fibra Ácido Detergente (FAD)

Para esta determinación, se toma la anterior muestra extraída del proceso de solución detergente neutro (bolsa pequeña) y se somete nuevamente a reacción pero esta vez con la Solución Detergente Acida (SDA), la cual está compuesta de 2 reactivos que resultan en una solución de carácter ácido. El equipo utilizado y el tiempo empleado es el mismo que el procedimiento anterior. Al reaccionar la solución detergente ácida con la muestra de pasto, la hemicelulosa es liberada de la estructura fibrosa, restando únicamente la Fibra Detergente Ácida (FDA), compuesta por celulosa y lignina aún adheridas entre sí.  En resumen, la diferencia entre ambas soluciones (SAD Vs SND)  radica en la capacidad de estas de disolver los compuestos contenidos en las fibras del forraje a través de la combinación de los reactivos específicos.

 Lignina

La determinación de la lignina sigue el mismo principio que las reacciones mencionadas anteriormente solamente que el procedimiento es ligeramente diferente y se depende de un reactivo de muy alta concentración, el cual es ácido sulfúrico al 72%. Éste ácido al entrar en contacto con el contenido de la bolsa proveniente del proceso de Fibra Acido Detergente, toma la porción fibrosa más fuertemente adherida del pasto, la cual es la unión entre la lignina y la celulosa, rompiendo sus enlaces y liberando a la celulosa, por lo que a través de su pesaje detallado se obtiene el porcentaje de lignina de los pastos, el cual afecta directamente el grado de digestibilidad de un forraje y en general de las dietas para animales. 

DETERMINACIÓN DEL EXTRACTO ETÉREO:

Para determinar los lípidos ó compuestos grasos del pasto que nutricionalmente representan una fracción de alto valor energético, se agrega a la muestra de manera cuidadosa el reactivo conocido como éter anhidro hasta que éste se derrame en condiciones controladas. El éter anhidro tiene la capacidad de arrastrar estos compuestos de tal forma que los separa de la muestra de pasto. Los compuestos arrastrados por el éter tardan aproximadamente 4 horas en obtenerse de manera correcta. Una vez concluido el procedimiento se pesa lo obtenido y se calcula el porcentaje correspondiente a la muestra tratada.

DETERMINACION DE LA PROTEINA

Para esta prueba de proteína se toman muestras y se tratan a través de un procedimiento de determinación estandarizado desde hace muchos años conocido como Proceso Kjeldahl. El material es digerido con reactivos de alta capacidad los cuales liberan cada uno de los componentes elementales de la muestra, que en este caso, es el nitrógeno el que interesa valorar. Las proteínas están compuestas principalmente por el nitrógeno, el cual siendo contabilizado, permite a través de una sencilla conversión numérica, obtener el valor de proteína en los forrajes y en general de los compuestos orgánicos.  A través de un método indirecto de valoración con soluciones que reaccionan al detectar diferencias entre los grados de acidez de las muestras, se determina el porcentaje de nitrógeno contenido, el cual permitirá conocer la composición proteica del pasto al multiplicarse por el factor 6,25.

Cada uno de los procedimientos comentados requieren de una destreza comprobada departe de técnicos en bromatología laboratorial. En estos, el control y seguimiento de las muestras así como la preparación y ejecución de cada procedimiento recae una responsabilidad y cuidado que sumado al conocimiento en nutrición animal por parte del profesional zootecnista, permite la correcta interpretación de múltiples interacciones entre las diferentes fracciones de los componentes de una pastura, por lo que la labor detallada de un análisis de forrajes depende principalmente de la experiencia y de la pericia del profesional a cargo. Por ello es recomendable que el ganadero se asesore correctamente para efectuar prácticas alimenticias y agronómicas que vayan en beneficio de la fuente alimenticia de cada unidad productiva y de su rentabilidad.   

Figura 3.  Resumen de los procesos básicos que se efectúan a las muestras de pasto molido en el laboratorio. Diseño: David Mora

Literatura consultada:

A.O.A.C. (Association of Official Analysis Chemistry). 1980. Methods of Analysis. 13th ed. Washington D.C. U.S.A. 168 p.

Chacón, A. Guía teórico-práctica del laboratorio de Bromatología. 2008. Serie Agrotecnológica. Editorial UCR. Primera edición. San José, Costa Rica

Goering, H.; Van Soest, P. 1970. Forage fiber analysis (Apparatus, reagents, procedures and some applications). Agricultural Handbook Nº 379. ARS-USDA, Washington, D.C. 76 p.

Segura, S; Echeverri, F; Patiño, A; Mejía, A. Descripción y discusión acerca de los métodos de análisis de fibra y del valor nutricional de forrajes y alimentos para animales. 2007. Revista de la Facultad de Química Farmacéutica. Volumen 14, número 1. Medellín, Colombia. Pags: 7

http://www.engormix.com/MA-agricultura/pasturas/articulos/manera-analizan-pastos-finca-t4013/089-p0.htm

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Fujitsu ha incorporado su sofisticada tecnología en un proyecto piloto de cultivo de maíz dulce, desarrollado en la Perfectura de Yamanashi, que forma parte de un trabajo destinado a revitalizar la agricultura en la región. En concreto, la compañía ha diseñado unas cajas de detección que integran una cámara y sensores de temperatura y humedad que se colocan en los campos de maíz dulce. Estos sensores recogen los datos en el interior de las filas de planta de maíz cubiertas de vinilo y, con ayuda de las cámaras, ven si las filas están cerradas o abiertas y así se pueden incrementar o disminuir los datos de humedad y temperatura.
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La multinacional nipona tiene como objetivo contribuir al uso sostenible de los recursos biológicos, como los productos agrícolas y, por ello, apoya las industrias primarias a través de la aplicación de las TIC. Como ejemplo en el 2011, la compañía instaló una red de información en los viñedos de Koshu en la Perfectura de Yamanashi, que determinó el mejor momento para recoger las uvas. El proyecto, además de asegurar que las uvas de alta calidad fueron perfectamente recogidas, también fue capaz de optimizar el tiempo para los tratamientos de reducción de plagas, con lo que se ha disminuido a la mitad el costo del uso de los productos agroquímicos, mientras que limita los brotes de las enfermedades. Fujitsu espera continuar desarrollando proyectos similares en otros productos agrícolas y está totalmente involucrada en la creación de aplicaciones innovadoras TIC para revitalizar la agricultura  
Acerca de Fujitsu
Fujitsu es la compañía japonesa líder en Tecnologías de la Información y Comunicación (TIC), con una gama completa de productos, soluciones y servicios tecnológicos. Sus 170.000 empleados dan soporte a clientes en más de 100 países. Utilizamos nuestra experiencia y el poder de las TIC para modelar el futuro de la sociedad con nuestros clientes. Fujitsu Limited (TSE:6702) reportó 4,5 billones de yenes (55.000 millones de US$) en ingresos consolidados durante el año fiscal finalizado el 31 de Marzo de 2011. Para más información: http://www.fujitsu.com
Acerca de Fujitsu Technology Solutions
Fujitsu Technology Solutions es el líder europeo de infraestructura TI con presencia en todos los mercados clave de Europa, Oriente Medio y Africa, además de India, y da servicio a compañías grandes, pequeñas y medianas, así como usuarios individuales. Con su enfoque de Infraestructuras Dinámicas, la compañía ofrece un portfolio completo de productos, soluciones y servicios, que comprende desde soluciones para clientes y datacenter a Infraestructura gestionada e IaaS. Emplea a más de 13.000 personas y es parte del Grupo Fujitsu. Para más información: ts.fujitsu.com/aboutus.

http://www.eleconomista.es/empresas-finanzas/noticias/3869277/04/12/fujitsu-incorpora-su-sofisticada-tecnologia-en-un-proyecto-piloto-de-cultivo-de-maiz-dulce-en-japon.html

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Is it Time to Trade in the Old Bull?

Being a small cattle operation has some advantages – and some disadvantages. I get to know my cows, calves and my one bull on a “personal” basis. They each have their own personalities, just like us humans. For instance, cow number 811, a younger cow bred and raised on this farm, is gentle as she can be and is always looking for cubes in my hand. On the other hand, cow number 859, another young one raised on this farm, is a little more flighty and wary of my getting very close to her.
And, Bully Boy, as I call him, purchased as a nearing 2-year-old in December, 2008, is a gentle soul, likes to have his head scratched. But, he’s so big I have to be wary of him when feeding from a bag or he might unknowingly hurt me when he gets impatient for the cubes to come out of the bag. And, he’s the main subject of this writing.
My registered Brangus bull is now 5 years old and I’ve been thinking lately about having to replace him in the next year or so. When is a bull too old, or what goes into the process of deciding to “cull” a bull?
Computers and the Internet are wonderful things for finding information on any subject! Doing some research, I found a number of articles on factors to be used in culling a bull and the selection factors which might be used in selecting, raising or purchasing a new bull. Two of the best, I think, are Bull Management for Cow/Calf Producers (PDF) by L. R. Sprott, B. B. Carpenter and T.A. Thrift, published by AgriLife Extension, Texas A&M System, and Bull Purchasing and Management by Dr. Jane A Parish, Mississippi State University.
Basically, bulls are culled most often for “old age.” What is “old age” for a bull? Well, the experts say semen quality declines after age 6 and also mature bulls about that age begin to lose their social dominance to younger, more aggressive bulls in multi-bull herds around that age.
Other factors for which a bull should be culled – poor vision, (I really didn’t think about that one being a factor), lack of desirable conformation, low quality semen (even if they’re younger) and inadequate serving capacity. Another important factor is “poor disposition.” That’s important because of the safety factor for humans, and, even other animals in the herd. And, of course, if the bull is producing poor performing offspring would be another major factor in culling.
So, it’s time for a new bull – what goes into deciding which bull to purchase? The first thing we’re told by the experts is, “plan ahead.” New bulls should be purchased 45 to 60 days before the breeding season. Why? To give the new bull(s) to adjust to their new surroundings and recover from any stress they may have been under during travel and sale.
Of course, a major factor, at least in my considerations for purchasing a new bull, is a visual appraisal of his conformation and soundness, as well has the temperament. Then, a look at his performance information like birth weight, weaning weight, yearling weight, average daily gain, frame size and scrotal circumference and EPDs will give additional information to consider.
Dr. Parish’s article even gives information on figuring how much a bull is worth, i.e., if you can get one bull for a certain price, say $ 2,000, and another for $ 3,000, how do you calculate if Bull B is worth $ 1,000 more than Bull A?
I plan to use all the information I can gather to help me decide, first, if it’s time for “Bully Boy” to be culled and then to purchase a new bull. The way I figure it, I have about a year to evaluate whether it’s time to “Trade in the Old Bull.”

http://cattlemarketnews.com/2012/04/is-it-time-to-trade-in-the-old-bull/

The Cattle Management Blog

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Consumer beef preferences are changing

Beef production has dropped to its lowest level since 1952 with 90.8 million head nationally.
According to the USDAWASDE Report, beef consumption in the U.S. continues to decline. Per capita consumption was 59.6 pounds in 2010 and is projected to drop to 54.8 pounds in 2012.
The Midwest region of the country is the largest consumer of beef.
Eighty-seven percent of households consume beef and the usage is consistent across all income levels. Men older than 55 consume beef more frequently than others, and young women under 25 consume the least amount of beef.
Ground beef is the type of beef most often consumed and is served in 39 percent of homes at least once a week. Families with children are the biggest users of ground beef.
Beef prices have increased from an average price per pound of $4.40 for choice retail beef in 2010 to the current price for choice retail beef of $5.09 per pound. Consumers are sensitive to the price increase and are modifying their purchasing habits.
According to research by the National Cattleman’s Beef Association (NCBA), consumers are buying less beef, less expensive cuts and beef on sale and freezing it for later use. Consumers are also switching to less expensive options such as chicken or meatless meals.
In addition to price, consumers have health and nutrition concerns about saturated fat and cholesterol.
Research shows that consumers are willing to pay more for extra lean beef. A study by NCBA demonstrated that 27 percent of shoppers are willing to pay up to $1 a pound more, 13 percent are willing to pay $1.50-$2.00 a pound more, 11 percent will pay $2.50-$3.00 a pound more and 10 percent will pay a premium of $3.50-$4.00 a pound. This demonstrates an opportunity for farmers in producing leaner beef.
Grass-fed beef has been identified as being lower in fat and saturated fat. These attributes are likely to be contributing to the increasing popularity of grass-fed beef.
(See Opportunities plentiful in grass finishing beef for more information).
It has been identified as a growing trend by major consumer research firms like Mintel and the Hartman Group. Research by the National Restaurant Association also has identified grass-fed beef as one of the top trends in the food service industry.
Beef producers who are interested in learning more about developing beef products to meet the changing needs of consumers may contact the MSUProduct Center for assistance. The Product Center can assist with developing a business plan for marketing a differentiated beef product.

http://southwestfarmpress.com/livestock/consumer-beef-preferences-are-changing

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VIDEO: Enfermedades vasculares en plantas

http://www.avancebt.com/es/multiples-patogenos/

La muerte de plantas y disminución en la productividad muchas veces es producto de enfermedades vasculares (o enfermedad "de madera"). Si tiene dudas realice un corte en su planta, "manchas" o coloraciones en el tejido interno indican la presencia de patógenos.

Afortunadamente existe un tratamiento para eliminar patógenos en el sistema vascular de las plantas. http://www.avancebt.com/es/tecnologia/

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VIDEO: Procesadora de Semillas - Shively's facility 04

meridian 240 seed tender filling DB60 24/47 with soybeans ... fast and easy way to load your planter

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Implants and performance of stocker calves

Many of the best and most up-to-date cattle producers in Arkansas are involved with raising stocker cattle. Producers who have no problem with investing $10 to $15 per calf for the  latest antibiotic to reduce mortality losses forgo the $1 to $2 per calf investment in growth-promoting implants for theircattle. One reason for this may be that producers can easily track sick pulls and death losses associated with respiratory disease but may not be able to see the 10 to 15 percent increase in performance gained from use of implants. Another possible reason may be the belief that use of implants prior to the finishing phase will either decrease performance during finishing, reduce carcass quality or both. Over the last three years, we have conducted research studies determining the benefits of implants pre-finishing and tracking the effects of pre-finishing implants through finishing and slaughter.
In one study, steers were placed on wheat pasture at the University of Arkansas Livestock and Forestry Branch Station at Batesville either after receiving an implant or were not implanted. Also, cattle in separate pastures were offered a non-medicated mineral, a mineral medicated with Rumensin or pressed protein blocks medicated with Rumensin. Steers fed the non-medicated mineral that did not receive an implant gained over 2.3 pounds per day, which is excellent performance for grazing steers. But the implanted steers fed the non-medicated mineral gained 2.7 pounds per day, an increase of 0.4 pound per day! While implanted steers fed the medicated mineral and blocks gained 0.55 pound more per day than steers fed the non-medicated mineral that did not receive an implant. Over a 100-day grazing period, supplying an ionophore and an implant would increase body weight gains by 55 pounds.
In another study conducted at both the University of Arkansas Livestock and Forestry Branch Station at Batesville and Southwest Research and Extension Center at Hope, steers were implanted upon arrival at the receiving pens, following delays of 14 and 28 days, or were not implanted. Implanting during the receiving period did not affect animal performance or animal health during the receiving period, but implants did increase gains while steers grazed cool-season annual pastures (wheat pasture at LFRS and rye or oat pasture at SWREC). Implanting increased overall average daily gain by 0.3 pound per day, but during the last 28-day grazing period, steers implanted on arrival gained less than steers implanted either on day 14 or 28 of receiving. During-receiving energy is likely being used by steers to combat stress and enhance immune function, as opposed to increasing performance in response to implants. While grazing steers were able to respond to implants by increasing weight gain, early implants were playing out before the end of the grazing season.
In the last study, sponsored by the Arkansas Beef Council and the Noble Foundation, steers and heifers from the SWREC cow herd were implanted (or not implanted) prior to finishing as calves (shipped to feedlot at 10 months of age) or as yearlings (shipped to feedlot at 15 months of age) after a stocker period with restricted gains (< 1 pound of gain per day) or unrestricted gains (> 2 pounds of gain per day). Implants increased pre-finishing gains of all cattle whether they were calf-fed, restricted gain yearlings or unrestricted gain yearlings. Interestingly, performance during finishing was not affected by implants pre-finishing. Carcass quality and tenderness were not affected by implant pre-finishing in calf-fed or unrestricted yearlings, but carcass quality grade of restricted gain yearlings was decreased and toughness was increased with implanting of restricted growth yearlings.
Growth promoting implants are a valuable tool for stocker producers with the potential to increase returns by up to $50 per calf. With judicious use of this technology, there is no detrimental effect on carcass quality or eating satisfaction of beef.
Source: Paul Beck, Professor

http://www.cattlenetwork.com/cattle-news/Implants-and-performance-of-stocker-calves-145979935.html?ref=935

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Marcadores genéticos de la calidad en la carne de vacuno

Un estudio analiza los marcadores genéticos de la calidad sensorial en la carne de vacuno

Un estudio llevado a cabo por el instituto francés INRA ha buscado determinar la especificidad de una raza francesa de ganado vacuno, la Salers, en cuanto a sus características musculares, la calidad de su carne y los marcadores genéticos de su calidad sensorial.
Para el estudio analizaron las cualidades sensoriales de dos músculos distintos (Longissimus thoracis y Semitendinosus) en 29 machos de la raza Salers. Se analizaron las propiedades contractiles y se identificaron 19 proteínas como marcadores de la sensibilidad, siendo cuantificados mediante la técnica dot-blot, que utiliza anticuerpos específicos para cada una de las proteínas. Las cualidades sensoriales (terneza, jugosidad, sabor) de las muestras fueron estimadas por un panel de catadores entrenados.
Según los resultados, la terneza de la carne de esta raza tiene un origen biológico diferente al resto de razas especializadas en la producción cárnica (Charolais, Limousin o Blonde d'Aquitaine) por lo que no se pueden utilizar los mismos marcadores para analizar su terneza y son necesarios nuevos estudios para determinar marcadores específicos para las razas autóctonas.
El estudio ha revelado una relación entre alguna de las proteínas estudiadas y la jugosidad de la carne. En concreto, la proteína DJ-1 puede ser un buen marcador de jugosidad en la raza Salers en los músculos estudiados.
A tenor de todo lo anterior, se podría desarrollar un test para analizar las cualidades sensoriales de los animales en vivo o a partir de biopsias de las canales, algo que está siendo desarrollado por el INRA.

http://www.eurocarne.com/noticias.php?codigo=23470&titulo=estudio_analiza_marcadores_geneticos_calidad_sensorial_carne_vacuno

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Growing more beef while fixing the farm

Quieter animals, more pasture and better productivity.

That's what is being promised to cattle owners who build a few more fences and move their stock regularly.

The idea's been around under a few names for years but now it's being called rotational grazing.

A series of field days is being held to convince south east Queensland's increasing number of cattle owners they can have their beef and their environment too.

Colin Hastie from SEQ Catchments, who's involved in organising the days, says the idea is to balance cattle production with efforts to address environmental degradation.

He says farmers who've trialled the method have found they can increase their stocking rate while keeping groundcover at around 90 per cent all year round.

One of the showcase properties is 650 hectares owned by Clyde Bain near Rathdowney, just over the range from the Gold Coast.

He moves his stock every few days through a series of creek flat paddocks in summer and up into steeper ironbark country in winter.

"They pretty much tell me when it's time to move," he said.

"There's no mustering to do, they're basically there waiting for me to open a gate and let them through.

"They'll eat off the top, pretty much get stuck into it straight away, they'll go into the next paddock and that paddock will recover quicker."

Retaining ground cover has brought a lot of environmental benefits since he started developing rotational grazing on the property in 2007.

Colin Hastie says areas of severe erosion on Clyde Bain's property have been reduced or reversed, particularly in what had been heavy traffic areas, and water is being held on property for longer.

"The soil condition improves dramatically because of the increase in pasture and the increase in organic matter," he said.

"With that increased health comes increased biodiversity at a soil and pasture level so we're seeing a fantastic return of native grass species."

He says other vegetation also has a chance to recover when not grazed as intensively and that leads to an increase in wildlife.

Colin Hastie says farmers who've been trialling the method are also reporting unexpected benefits such as breaking the tick cycle in paddocks.

Four field days are being run by SEQ Catchments with funding from the Federal Government's Caring for our Country program.

http://www.abc.net.au/rural/content/2012/s3466790.htm?site=brisbane

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Cómo planificar la conservación

La tecnología permite determinar qué factores definen la eficiencia y rentabilidad de los sistemas ganaderos. El análisis de los forrajes y su correcta conservación aseguran el aporte energético óptimo según cada rodeo y carga animal. Éste tema, entre otros, será presentado en la 3ª Jornada Nacional de Forrajes Conservados, del 28 al 30 de marzo, en el INTA Manfredi –Córdoba–, con entrada gratuita y la participación de especialistas destacados del país y del exterior.
“Es necesario planificar y evaluar los resultados posibles frente a cambios en los factores de producción”, indicó Marcelo De León, coordinador del proyecto nacional de Forrajes Conservados. Un análisis cuantitativo es clave cuando se habla de productividad y eficiencia de transformación de los alimentos en productos.
“Es sumamente importante dejar de considerar al maíz y al sorgo como una reserva forrajera de uso ocasional y convertirlos en elementos estratégicos en la planificación de los sistemas de producción intensivos de alta producción y rentabilidad”, dijo De León.
El que guarda siempre tiene
La ganadería intensiva en la Argentina se desarrolla mediante el aporte de cultivos forrajeros producidos sobre todo en el verano. El déficit hídrico registrado en ese momento provoca efectos inmediatos de gran impacto tanto en la calidad de los forrajes como en el perfil nutricional de los animales que lo consumen.
Miriam Gallardo, especialista en forrajes conservados del INTA Castelar –Buenos Aires– explicó que esta situación afecta severamente la productividad del sistema para la temporada otoño-invernal. En este sentido es indispensable “el monitoreo, análisis y balance minucioso de la cantidad y calidad de los henos y ensilajes efectivamente disponibles”.
Los forrajes destinados a la conservación que más se utilizan son el maíz y el sorgo. Los buenos ensilajes de planta entera se realizan con panojas y/o espigas cuyos granos se encuentran en estado intermedio de madurez (granos pastosos) y los tallos y las hojas aún están turgentes, activas y con color verde.
“Los ensilajes de mayor valor nutritivo se logran con plantas que poseen de 35 a 37% de materia seca total (MS) al momento del corte”, dijo Gallardo, quien además agregó: “El contenido de MS es la variable de mayor impacto, por lo que todo factor que lo modifique alterará la calidad tanto durante el período de fermentación como al momento del suministro”.
De acuerdo con los especialistas del INTA, en las plantas bajo estrés hídrico con follaje seco y tallos con alta humedad, es necesario plantear estrategias de precisión en el corte y picado para lograr que el forraje no se deteriore durante su conservación.
Entre las estrategias recomendadas están: levantar la plataforma de corte de la picadora al menos a 25 centímetros del nivel de terreno y ajustar la máquina para lograr una longitud teórica de corte menor a dos centímetros. “El ajuste y las correcciones para un corte adecuado deberán realizarse en el mismo momento del picado”, aseguró Gallardo.
La evaluación de los materiales mediante un análisis en el laboratorio es una práctica indispensable para obtener dietas equilibradas. Además, con la información apropiada el productor “podrá planificar la adquisición y utilización de alimentos adicionales como concentrados energéticos, proteicos y fibra extra”, indicó la técnica del INTA Castelar.


http://www.on24.com.ar/notaagro.aspx?idNot=52104

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Profesionalismo, una caracterísitica indispensable para conseguir trabajo

Cada vacante varía en los requisitos que necesita para llenar un puesto: experiencia, educación, recomendaciones, entre otros. Sin embargo hay ciertas características que son indispensables para solicitar a cualquier trabajo, sin importar los requisitos, y estas tienen que ver con profesionalismo.  

Por esta razón aquí les presentamos una lista de cosas que siempre (o nunca) hay que hacer cuando solicitan a un trabajo:

• Nunca escriban correos electrónicos o CVs con faltas de ortografía o redacción. Con todos los softwares que hay disponibles sólo muestra una falta de esfuerzo. 
• • Esto incluye no escribir “q o “c” con “k”, porke esto se ve katástrofiko. 
  • También incluye integrar acentos, puntuación y uso de mayúsculas correcto.
  • SIEMPRE firmen con su nombre y si quieren con su título. 
• Su presentación física es importante. Esto no quiere decir que tienen que vestir con ropa cara, si no que se vean presentables y limpios. Cada trabajo tiene diferentes estilos, por ejemplo si van a una entrevista a un banco siempre tienen que ir en traje y corbata, o con pantalon y una camisa o sueter presentable para las mujeres; o tal vez si están solicitando trabajo en una agencia de comunicación pueden ir un poco más informales. De igual manera, siempre investiguen antes de su entrevista cuál es el estilo de la oficina donde se entrevistarán.
  • La presentación física también aplica para CVs. Si van a poner una foto suya asegurense que sea algo profesional: una foto abrazando a su perro o tomada en una fiesta no son profesionales, por más guapos que se vean.
  • Cuando vayan a una entrevista asegurense de lavarse los dientes, y no tomar café o comer comidas con olores fuertes antes. Tampoco es buena idea que lleguen desvelados o crudos.
• Antes de que vayan a una entrevista preparénse. Investiguen que hace la empresa, quienes son sus directivos, cuales son sus publicaciones recientes. Es válido preguntar que formato tendrá la entrevista, o si tienen que preparar algo especial. Lo que se quiere demostrar es que están interesados y son meticulosos en su preparación. Recuerden que todo esto se evaluará para ver si son la persona ideal para un puesto. 
• Finalmente, después de una entrevista siempre envíen un correo electrónico agradeciendo a la persona que los entrevistó. Esto demuestra interés y respeto, y hace que el reclutador se acuerde de ustedes, lo cuál puede ser una ventaja, sobre todo para vacantes donde hay mucha competencia. 
  

 

 

http://empleosverdes.tumblr.com/post/18593747540/profesionalismo-una-caracterisitica-indispensable-para

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BUSCANDO EMPLEO: El lenguaje corporal puede ser un factor decisivo

Muchas veces hemos escuchado la frase “la primera impresión es la que vale” lo cual encierra una gran verdad, principalmente en lo relacionado con la entrevista de trabajo.

Morderse las uñas, moverse en la silla, dar golpecitos con la pluma… son pequeñas cosas que expresan tu estado de ánimo (i.e. si estás nervioso). No hace falta explicar, por tanto, la importancia de controlar nuestra comunicación no verbal cuando estamos en un contexto laboral: desde una entrevista de selección hasta una reunión de trabajo o un proceso de negociación salarial.

No existirá una segunda oportunidad para causar una primera buena impresión. La atención y concentración de tu entrevistador será máxima en los primeros cinco minutos y será como una esponja, captando un montón de información a partir de muy pocos datos.

El 95% de los empresarios considera que el aspecto y la vestimenta del aspirante influyen en su opinión sobre la idoneidad de la persona para el puesto de trabajo; y, más importante, el 75% piensa que el aspecto también influye en los posteriores ascensos, según un estudio realizado.*

Una carta de recomendación y un CV bien redactados harán la composición perfecta para conseguir una entrevista, pero no dominar las técnicas del buen lenguaje corporal pueden devastar tus posibilidades.

Uno de los aspectos que más ayudan a una buena impresión es la vestimenta. Siempre asegura que sea acorde con la ocasión (para más información ver nuestro artículo sobre profesionalismo). Se aconseja presentarte impecable, ya que esto impactará inmediatamente a tu entrevistador.

Aunque la vestimenta tiene que ir de acuerdo con el estilo de la empresa, normalmente los hombres deben evitar el uso de joyas. Se acepta el anillo de bodas, lo mismo que el reloj de pulsera. Nada más. Si usas aretes es recomendable quitártelos para la entrevista. Usa un traje bien planchado,   y corbatas que no sean muy llamativas y estén bien puestas, los zapatos deben ser sencillos y estar bien lustrados, los calcetines deben cubrir la pantorrilla e ir bien apretados. En el caso de la mujer, se debe evitar los colores brillantes y extremos.  Las minifaldas no son aconsejables. El maquillaje debe ser de una tonalidad clara o pálida.  Las joyas deben ser mínimas, sólo un anillo y es preferible levar reloj de pulsera a una pulsera.  El collar debe ser lo menos llamativo posible.  Se debe proyectar una imagen que proyecte profesionalismo y competencia.  

Esto es válido para todo el proceso de reclutamiento. Aunque ya estés en la cuarta ronda de este.   

Las acciones reflejan los pensamientos y los pensamientos se convierten en acciones, así que cuando piensas con seguridad sobre algún aspecto, entonces probablemente te comportarás con seguridad y lo demostrarás al entrevistador a partir de tus gestos.

Hay posiciones del cuerpo que hablan por sí mismas, por ejemplo, el caminar erguido trasmite una gran seguridad en sí mismo. Se aconseja hacer movimientos con seguridad, firmeza y evitar en lo posible gestos como tocarse la nariz o la quijada. Así mismo, es importante que tus manos permanezcan a la vista y relajadas.

También es importante mantener el rostro relajado y sonreír cuando se considere conveniente. En una entrevista trata de llevar una conversación como cualquier otra, esta es la mejor forma de estar tranquilo y mantener un buen lenguaje corporal - la preparación previa a la entrevista también ayudará a que estés confiado y listo para responder preguntas. Se debe mirar al entrevistador a los ojos desde el comienzo mismo de la entrevista, y mantener el contacto ocular a lo largo de toda. Esto no significa que deba mantener una mirada estática, fija y exasperante. El contacto ocular debe interrumpirse con frecuencia, pero para volverse a establecer. Esa es la forma de transmitir un subtexto de honestidad y franqueza.

Recuerda que es válido preguntar si no entendiste algo, y que normalmente te ofrecerán agua o alguna bebida antes de la entrevista, acéptala para evitar que se te reseque la garganta; así podrás hablar claro y fuerte. También te recomendamos lavarte los dientes o tomar una menta antes de asistir a la entrevista, chicles son completamente inaceptables.

Ante una entrevista de trabajo, es un error obsesionarnos en controlar al 100% nuestro cuerpo. Pero tampoco nos podemos olvidar de él.

Aprende a controlar el lenguaje corporal y utilízalo en tu beneficio. Puedes sacar un gran provecho si conoces lo que transmiten tus movimientos, no sólo en una entrevista de trabajo, sino en todos los aspectos de tu vida.

Información adaptada de Microempresas México 

http://www.microempresa.com.mx/

 

 

http://empleosverdes.tumblr.com/post/20122556533/el-lenguaje-corporal-puede-ser-un-factor-decisivo

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